Published in Issue 9 of Pagan Ireland (Autumn 2023). Get a copy of this issue here: https://paganireland.com/buyissues
As discussed in O’Reilly (2022) Pagan Ireland winter edition, witchcraft, magic and superstition has aroused much interest over the centuries due to the number of individuals (approx. 40,000) executed during the European ‘witch craze’ or ‘burning time’ between the 14-18th century (Levack 2002).
However, researchers investigating witchcraft and folk magic often focus on the historical information involving accusations, trials and executions whilst the material evidence associated with supernatural beliefs among folk populations is often neglected, with the exception of a few systematic studies such as Merrifield (1999), Manning (2014) and Hoggard (2019). These authors discuss the ritual use of concealed objects in Europe including dried cats, chickens, shoes, horse skulls and witch bottles, which were used to ward off witchcraft and evil spirits. Evidence from antiquaries, folklore and a few archaeological journals reveal that concealed animal remains, along with a variety of other charms detailed in O’Reilly (2010), were once widely used throughout the island of Ireland to safeguard against supernatural beings and misfortune up until the early 20th century.
In this article the writer discusses evidence of how concealed horse skulls (Fig.1), and to a lesser extent cattle skulls, were used among Irish folk populations for ritual and acoustic purposes. However, it is first necessary to give a brief insight to some of the superstitions concerning the construction of a building, which may relate to the practice of concealing animal remains. Documented accounts of Irish folk traditions regarding selecting a suitable location for construction are scarce. According to folklorist Gailey (1984) it was important to choose where to construct a foundation so that fairy paths and features were not disturbed. O’Suilleabhain (1967) states that precautions were taken when planning a building. For instance, it was common to seek the advice of a ‘fairy doctor’ who had secret knowledge of fairy behaviour and sticks were used to mark the four corners of where a building would be constructed. These sticks were left overnight and checked the following morning for any disturbance. If they were in their original state, then it was considered a sign from the fairies that it was safe to continue with the building stage. Gailey (1984) explains it was common to leave a tribute such as coins to ensure good luck during the building process and that during the planning of Clonallan parish in Co. Down, large stones were placed in the position of where the gable would be. Lamps were lit and placed on the stones overnight and studied the following day for evidence of interference. As there was no indication of this the building continued as planned, however if any such signs were observed then the fairies had deemed the site unlucky. If we consider the careful consideration to fairy welfare during the initial planning stages of construction, then it is hardly surprising that similar superstitious attitudes would continue during the initial construction phase in the form of deposited charms such as animal skulls. According to Merrifield (1987, 117) “The use of part of an animal, particularly the skull or jaw bone, as a symbol of sacrifice, was common in building deposits of the Anglo Saxon, medieval and later times”. Other authors including Williams (2000) and Davies and Blécourt (2004) suggest that the custom of concealing animal skulls in the walls and floors of buildings during their construction dates back to the Iron Age and was used up until the early 20th century. However, the exact purpose for their concealment is debatable. Folklorist O’Suilleabhain (1967) believes that horse skulls were used as foundation offerings, a custom once common in China, Africa, New Zealand, South America and Europe during the Middle Ages. The author suggests that animal heads were buried during the construction of a building in order to strengthen and render the magical abilities of the house enabling it to withstand the elements and bad luck.
In 1945 O’Suilleabhain published the results of a survey he conducted concerning concealed animal skulls. The enquiry was sent out in 1938 and asked “Do any traditions exist locally (or are tales told in which the idea occurs) about the burying of the heads of animals or other objects in certain places. If so, please state what these traditions are, even if the information available is scanty or incomplete” (O’Suilleabhain 1945, 45). The author received 31 responses from the Republic of Ireland, most of which stated that it was common to place a horse skull beneath the flagstone in front of the hearth to produce an echo effect when dancing. However, there were a few cases which revealed that animal skulls were used as good luck charms. One such contributor from Co. Galway stated that horse skulls were placed beneath floorboards to bring good luck to the house and its owners. Another from Co. Sligo described that a cow or horse head was positioned under flooring to create an echo sound and that when a sickly cow died its hind legs were removed and positioned in the couples (rafters) to prevent the death of the remaining cattle. A responder from Co. Leitrim reported that it was custom to cut the head off the first cow that died after a house was constructed. The head was deposited beneath the threshold of the house or in the kitchen to ward off evil and ill luck. A further account from Ennis Co. Mayo stated that a cow’s head was removed when it perished and positioned 3ft deep in the ground inside a house. The carcass was sprinkled with salt and left in a field or in some cases placed into a river to stop the spread of bad luck or illness. The same participant explained the custom of cutting off hen heads and burying them within the house of a child suffering from epileptic fits as this would cure them. To quote O’Suilleabhain ’s (1945, 49) views on the burial of animal skulls; “It can hardly be doubted that the now popular explanation of the burial of horse-skulls under the floors of houses, churches, castles or bridges (to produce an echo) is a secondary one. It may indeed be a practical explanation, but a little consideration of the problem must inevitably lead to the conclusion that this custom is but another link in the chain of evidence regarding foundation sacrifices”.
Conversely, Albert Sandklef debated O’Suilleabhain’s theory and undertook his own research on concealed horse skulls in Scandinavia (C.D. 1953). When investigating superstitions Sandklef found that coins, prehistoric axes, steel, human skulls and animals such as cats and pigs were buried beneath the foundations of buildings but not horse skulls. Sandklef carried out an experiment by burying 2 horse skulls beneath a clay floor to test the ‘echo theory’ and found that upon the spot where the skulls were buried the sound increased considerably. Therefore, he concluded that rural folk populations buried horse skulls for acoustic purposes and not ritual use (C.D. 1953). Buchanan (1956) debates this in his folklore publication detailing the discovery of a horse skull found at a rural house in Derrled townland, Co. Armagh. The owner, Mr James Hume, gave a detailed description stating that the skull was found in a cut out rectangular hole in the parlour around 18 inches beyond the threshold of the door leading from the kitchen, which was likely deposited during the house’s construction between the late 17th to early 18th century. The discovery attracted local attention and a family who claimed to have knowledge of popular folk traditions informed Buchanan (1956,60) that “the skull of a favourite animal was buried for the luck of the house”. Although Sandklef’s argument for his investigations regarding Scandinavian evidence was convincing, the author concluded that the position of the skull at Derrlea was in the least effective spot for acoustics motives and thus the likely explanation was to promote luck. Folklorist Gailey (1984, 1987) recorded cases which supports the theory that horse skulls were buried for acoustic purposes. For instance, in the early 1960’s Gailey (1984) visited a farmhouse in Drumaghlis Co. Down where 6 horse skulls were found beneath the floorboards upon which a piano sat (Fig.2). The author noted that pianos had also been positioned over horse skull discoveries from a dwelling in Knocknamuckley Co. Antrim and in several community halls. As the majority of finds occurred in buildings which functioned as ceilidhing houses for music and dancing the author concluded that concealment of horse skulls was done to create a ‘sounding box’ effect.
Archaeologists Mallory and Mc Cormick (1984) visited Bay Farm cottage in Carnlough, Co. Antrim in 1983 were 10 horse skulls, and a cow radius, were uncovered during the renovation. The construction workers explained that the were found beneath the floorboards of the cottage in the middle of the north sitting room. Skeletal examination indicated that knife, weathering and dog gnawing marks were visible indicating that the flesh was removed prior to burial and therefore the practice was to bury horse skulls and not horse heads. The horses died of old age/disease and were concealed during the buildings construction during the 17-18th century possibly to amplify music/dancing. Folklorist Harris (1957) recorded examples of horse skull discoveries from Co. Down which were said to have been deposited for acoustic purposes and to safeguard again ill luck. For example, Mr McMurray (78 years) from Bairds house in Banbridge explained that a horse skull was positioned in the wall of the main room for sound purposes and that noises coming from the yard could clearly be heard in the evenings due to this effect. A testimonial from a Mr Craig explained that he deposited a mare’s skull under the floorboards during the construction of the Gransha Orange Hall in 1897t o set the sound for music and dancing.
Harris (1957) also described instances where horse skulls were buried to ensure good fortune. For example, a horse skull was discovered in the centre of a wall during a renovation of a house in Kinallen in the early 1990s. A local elderly lady (75 years) claimed it was placed there for sound benefits however, the home owners placed the skull into another wall in their house as they believed it brought them good luck. Another discovery was made at a barn in Aughnaskeagh in 1956-57. The skull was buried 9 inches in the ground, in the centre of the floor where thrashing was done. The owner explained to Harris (1957) that this meant ‘the barn would always be full’. This was also the case at a house in Drumadoney in 1940. A horse skull was found beneath the floorboards of a bedroom which used to be a barn for threshing. The homeowners elderly father (aged 95 years) explained that it was placed there to bring good luck.
Clearly there is evidence for an acoustic and a ritual practice of concealing horse/cow skulls in Ireland among folk populations, however we have to wonder. If these skulls were indeed used as sound amplifiers, then why were they concealed beneath floorboards and in the walls of buildings which could very well hinder the acoustic effect as opposed to leaving the remains in the open which may been more beneficial? Furthermore, given the first-hand accounts explaining that the animal skulls had a magical purpose and the similarity of other concealed charms in Ireland (incl. pre-historic axe heads and shoes) in the walls and floors of buildings for protection and good fortune along with the superstition regarding the construction of a building, it would appear the purpose of burying horse skulls was originally a ritual one. According to Merrifield’s (1987,126) “the head of a horse has been a symbol of power, which was used in rituals in the Roman period and latter appears to have been used as foundation sacrifices in order to drive away evil spirits and witchcraft”. Taking the above into consideration along with too little research showing a correlation between the concealment of horse skulls and improved acoustics, this writer believes O’Suilleabhain theory is correct when he suspected that there was a supernatural purpose for burying horse skulls which may have changed over time with a practical (and perhaps partly true) acoustic explanation so that the custom could continue into the modern age without interruption.
Dr R. O’Reilly
